The difference between proofreading and editing

http://www.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/543/1/The-difference-between-editing-and-proofreading

The difference between proofreading and editing

There always has been a dilemma about the difference between proofreading and editing in the world of translation. To many of us, both terms mean the same, but there is actually quite a difference. While proofreading of a given text may take only half an hour, the editing of that very same text can take up to three hours - or even more. So how do these two processes differ?

To begin with, we need to define both terms:

Proofreading
This is a process whereby the text is being scanned for grammar, syntax and spelling errors. This process typically involves much the same correction as a secondary school teacher would perform on a written test. The meaning of words and terminology is irrelevant here, as the job focuses only on the correctness of the text. Therefore, the use of a dictionary is necessary only to check spelling and conjugation, not much else. Also, this work does not involve the use of a CAT tool.

Proofing is best paid by the hour, as not all words are worked on by the proofreader. However, in the case of a very poorly written text, it may come in handy to be paid by the word, especially if more than 50% of words need to be retyped.

Proofreading is something that is used less and less, as most software nowadays automatically corrects the errors that would be picked up by the proofreader. It's almost like having a virtual proofreader built into the software. Typically, proofreading is charged at around 25% of the price that would be charged for the translation of the same text.

Editing

This process concentrates less on the form and more on the terminology. Editing involves checking to make sure that correct terminology was used. This is achieved by researching each term that raises a doubt, or even terms that are unknown to the editor, just to make sure that the right terms were used. This typically involves research - whether online or in specialized dictionaries - accompanied by recommended corrections. Usually, when working in Word, the track changes feature is used, and sometimes only comments are added through the commenting tool of Word. In either case, the editor only recommends changes and does not implement them. This is because, when there are errors, it is usually up to the original translator to correct their own mistakes (many translators have a clause in their contract for this, as well as agencies). So, the recommendations of the editor are usually sent back to the translator first so that he/she can correct his/her mistakes, and only then is the text proofread, if it needs to be at all. CAT tools are frequently used for this work, as wrong terms are often used throughout the text and they also need to be replaced. However, search & replace tools will also do in the case of shorter or less complex texts.

Editing is either paid by the hour or by the word. I have done both and both methods work fine. However, keep in mind that, when you charge by the hour, hourly rates for proofreading and editing should not be inferior to the hourly rate you would charge for translation. If you charge USD 40 for translation, charge the same for proofreading and editing also, as you really DID work that many hours. There still will be a big difference in costs for the outsourcer or agency, as the translation of the text will take much more time than its proofreading or editing. The text that will take four hours to translate will only take about one hour to be proofread, so, while the translation would cost USD 160, the proofreading would only cost USD 40, and so forth. Keep this in mind when quoting hourly rates.

What's up with all that?
The reason why it is important to distinguish between these two processes is that, more often than not, outsourcers call editing proofreading and vice versa. While most of them do this only because they don't make a difference between the two, a few of them will actually "lure" you into editing a document - at proofreading rates.

I strongly recommend to get paid for both of these jobs at an hourly rate, as all jobs differ in difficulty. This way, no matter how tough a job is, you will always get what your work is worth.

On a closing note, even if it's not quite the subject, PLEASE, do sign a contract for every job you do, no matter how small. It is the only way you can get paid and the only guarantee that no more than what was agreed in the contract will be expected of you - in other words, you will not need to put in any "volunteer" work.

Text revision and translation

Text revision

Text revision is basically the process of making changes in a text written by someone else. This could be a translation or an original text composed in a foreign language (or even the native language).

The term 'text revision' covers a lot of different procedures, as there are many things you can do to a text. The main purpose, of course, is to make sure that the intended idea of the text comes cross to the intended target reader.

1.     Correction of grammar and vocabulary (and spelling)

The most basic, and most essential, type of text revision consists in correcting errors in the text you're presented with. This is important for various reasons: some types of mistakes give rise to misunderstandings, others make the text almost impossible to read, and others again are just plain embarrassing.

2.     Minimization of implicature

We humans tend to operate with a lot of implied meaning (i.e. between-the-lines meaning) which is not directly expressed by the words used in the text. Now, we do this primarily because we assume that it is not necessary to spell out the implied information as we expect the reader to figure it out on their own (we assume common ground with the reader, so we basically think that the implied meaning is based on knowledge that the reader already has and shares with us. However, not all readers share common ground with us, and therefore it is a good idea to bring out the implied meaning into the open and express it overtly, so readers that do not share common ground with us will be able to understand the text completely.

Another reason for minimization of implicature is that some readers might infer implicit meanings from the text which where not intended. Some people just infer all sorts of meanings, because they have a tendency to (maybe they are paranoid and thus think all texts are full of hidden attacks on them), and there is not much one can do about that. However, if you scrutinize a number of texts, you will find that a lot of them contain formulations, phrases, structures and words which are ambiguous or which do suggest certain implicit meanings. One way to do that is to, through text revision, get rid of those, changing them into other, less ambiguous, structures.

3.     Text optimalization

You may be asked to optimize the text, which basically means that you have to streamline it, such that it conveys as much information as possible without being too long and clumsy. This often involves use of information structuring devices such as certain constructions and patterns of word order. You might even have to restructure the entire text.

Note that minimization of implicature is basically a type of text optimalization.

4.     Reader-friendliness

Maybe the text is simply 'reader-unfriendly' for whatever reason (poor writing skills, heavy diction, clumsy structures etc.), and you may be asked to change it into something more reader-friendly.

5.     Register transposition

Finally, you might be asked to rewrite the text into another register. There could be many reasons for this, such as:

• new target reader group

• register of original text outdated

• adapting the text to a new context

• change of purpose of the text

• the register is incompatible with the domain

• the text is too subjective (or not subjective enough)

• etc.

Register

A register is basically a variety of a language that is associated with a specific situation or a specific context or a specific genre of discourse (these contexts go under the name of domains). For instance, some contexts call for formal English while informal English may be more appropriate in others. And when you talk computers with your geek friends, you use a specific jargon that you would not use when performing a religious ceremony. In some contexts, you may use a very objective variant of English, while in others a more opinionated, emotional, subjective one might be appropriate.

A lot of well established English registers even have names, such as Motherese, Technical English, Medical English, Journalese (there is even something called Headlinese), Religious English, Academic English etc.

For instance, if you are a politician who wants to persuade people into following you, you would want to deploy objective and scientific, and perhaps slightly formal language (without overdoing it) appealing to their sense of logic and rational argumentation with target reader groups consisting of academics, while you would use a more informal register, deploying expressions that appeal to emotions with target readers who have no education. Admitted, we are stereotyping here, but you get the point.

6.     The importance of text revision

Needless to say, text revision is vital. The whole purpose of an informative test is to convey information, and if the original writer fails to get it across, he or she will need someone to do it for him or her. Otherwise, people will not understand the text properly. Moreover, texts which are full of mistakes are difficult to read, and they also tend to lack credibility (people just do not trust people who cannot spell or who do not know proper grammar), and texts that are error-ridden often tend to become objects of ridicule.

Source:

Text Revision and Translation Kim Ebensgaard Jensen

Fall 2009 AAU, Almen Engelsk, 3rd. semester

THE NONACADEMIC JOB SEARCH FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS

 www.grad.uiuc.edu/careerservices

 THE NONACADEMIC JOB SEARCH FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS

There is no magic formula for finding a job. A variety of techniques and strategies may be employed, and success varies with the individual. This document discusses a variety of techniques that should enhance your job search and highlights the practices that are most effective.

Introduction to Job Hunting

The points listed below should be carefully considered prior to embarking on a job search.

Conduct a Thorough Self Assessment

If you haven’t seriously considered what you want in a career, it is critical that you spend time engaged in self assessment before embarking on your job search. If you have not already identified the skills you can offer potential employers and the characteristics you value in a job, you will be unable to successfully sell yourself to possible employers. You will waste time pursuing jobs that are not a good fit for you skills, values, and interests.

Be Proactive

No one owes you a job, and you certainly will not find one unless you take responsibility for the process. Be flexible and open-minded. You never know where an opportunity will lead, so take advantage of every opportunity that presents itself.

Be Persistent

Follow up on everything you do, and don’t take “no” for an answer. If you submit your résumé via e-mail to a job posting, also submit a hard copy, place a phone call to the organization, and even stop by the organization (if possible) to reinforce your interest in the position. Although you don’t want to annoy anyone, expressing a sincere interest in a position or organization is appropriate. Following up gives you more exposure, making it more likely that an employer will remember and consider you. Often the most memorable job candidate is the one who receives the offer.

Have a Plan

Consider your job search as a part-time to full-time job and structure your days and weeks accordingly. Set aside several blocks of time each week to focus on your job search. Assume a managerial role by setting realistic daily, weekly, and monthly goals, and strive to meet these objectives. For example, plan to make a certain number of phone calls, mail a specified number of letters and résumés, and follow up on a finite number of leads per week. Keep thorough records of all these activities, including an appointment calendar and a detailed log of calls, e-mail, mail, and follow-up activities.

Do Your Research

Researching career options and organizations is an essential step prior to beginning the job search. Without this knowledge, how can you be certain you are searching in the right places for the opportunities that will best satisfy your goals? And without having some basic knowledge about the organizations you are applying to, how can you possibly persuade them to hire you? Since research comes naturally to many graduate students and because most information is readily available on the Internet, career exploration and organizational research should not be an inordinately cumbersome process.

Go After the Organization, not the Job

Jobs constantly change and evolve, and being satisfied with your work environment is often more important than your actual responsibilities and tasks. If an appealing organization has a job available, but that position is not quite what you were looking for, you might still consider it. Here’s why: once you have landed a job with an organization and established yourself, it is usually much easier to change positions within that organization. Getting your foot in the door, even in a position that is not quite what you want, may be an excellent first step to landing your dream job with an organization you really like.

Be Open-Minded and Flexible

Just because the organization or the job is not exactly what you envisioned, don’t write it off automatically. Sometimes an unexpected opportunity will lead you to opportunities you had never imagined! Also, don’t limit yourself by saying things like “I only want to work for a Fortune 100 Company.” Small firms with fewer than twenty people can be extremely rewarding, and these firms actually create two thirds of all new jobs!

Be Realistic

It is important to maintain an optimistic, self-confident, and realistic attitude when looking for a job. Try to view your job search as a learning process and remember that you are also engaged in a matching process: you are looking for the right job as much as employers are looking for the right employee. Prepare for a long job search, especially during difficult economic times, and expect the process to last anywhere from four to eight months. Rejection is inevitable, so be prepared. Try not to take it personally and seek out feedback that will help you improve your search.

Manage Your Expectations

Although you may have remarkable skills and years of experience in graduate school, many employers may not consider this to be directly relevant to the job you are seeking. In fact, many employers are just now realizing the value of employees with advanced training. Without tangible work experience, you may have to start with an entry-level position. Do not let this discourage you. Although starting at the bottom of an organization may not be what you envisioned, sometimes it is the only way to gain entrance into a particular organization or industry. Employees with advanced degrees have sophisticated skills, maturity, and learn quickly; they consequently advance more rapidly within an organization than their younger, less seasoned peers.

The Easy Way Out: Posted Jobs

Responding to job postings in newspapers, journals, online, or at search firms is the most popular method of looking for a job, yet is the least successful approach, especially for those who are seeking high level, salaried positions. Because it is so easy to respond to ads, everyone out there does it! As a result, competition is exceptionally strong for the relatively few positions that are actually posted. A majority of salaried and managerial jobs are never even posted, so waiting to find the perfect job through an ad may provide bleak results. Although it is worth trying this method, it certainly should not be the only job search method you use, nor should you spend much of your time or energy on it.

Online Employment Ads

Millions of people are on the Internet each day, and there are hundreds of job search sites out there that promise to match you up with your “perfect” job. It’s the easiest way to search for jobs nationwide, especially since you can do it from home and without expending much effort. However, recent reports indicate that there are currently sixteen million résumés floating around on the Internet and that the success rate for finding a job online is only about 4 percent. Such a low success rate suggests that this is not the best
use of your time (note: success rates in high demand fields like information technology, engineering, or healthcare may be higher).

In addition to responding to online ads, there are also numerous Web sites where you may post your résumé, making it available to potential employers seeking qualified candidates. Organizations generally use keyword searches to find résumés that interest them, so make sure you load your résumé with these Web sites. Keep in mind that posting to such sites makes your personal information widely available to others.

Employment Ads in Newspapers and Journals

Responding to employment ads in newspapers and journals is a popular job search method, but not the most effective method due to stiff competition. Success rates hover at about 5 percent for those responding to newspaper ads and about 7 percent for individuals applying for positions advertised in professional and trade journals.

When responding to an ad, you should always include a cover letter that is tailored to the ad and follow up with a phone call within ten days. Other tips include:

• Be flexible; respond to positions that may be close, if not exactly, what you want.
• Watch for organizations hiring for a variety of positions. Even if they are not hiring for the specific position you want, consider contacting them because hiring is happening—they may also have a need for your skills.
•  Do your research. Send your materials to the person indicated in the ad, but also send them to a person in the department where you are interested in working in order to potentially uncover unadvertised opportunities.
• Use regional, national and international sources (including newspapers), not just local ones.

Search Firms

Search firms, also sometimes known as headhunters, executive recruiters, or agencies, work for specific organizations that are seeking to hire employees. Since search firms do much of the preliminary screening of applicants, organizations are often more likely to choose this method for finding employees over some of the other methods discussed above. Nevertheless, search firms have success rates that range from 5 to 28 percent, with managerial and salaried jobs falling at the lower end of this range. Search firms should always be paid by the employer and not by you, and they should never have you sign a contract. Be selective when you are working with search firms; use only reputable firms and do not send your résumé to every recruiter in the area if you want to prevent multiple submissions of your résumé to the same organization.

Cold Calling: The Numbers Game

Cold calling is the process of approaching organizations and inquiring if they are hiring for positions that interest you. This can be accomplished by sending out résumés and e-mails, telephoning, or approaching an organization in person. Since you do not know whether a job is actually available, you need to contact as many organizations as possible to uncover these hidden opportunities. Statistics tell us that, on average, job seekers receive one job offer for every six interviews. Additionally, for every 100 unsolicited contacts made, a job seeker will receive between one and four interviews. Hence, to land a job, you may need to contact a minimum of 600 organizations. Some experts even estimate that as many as 1200 contacts may be necessary.

Although cold calling is research and labor intensive, it is a viable way to conduct a job search. While statistics say that merely mailing out résumés to employers at random yield only about a 7 percent success rate, going in person to an organization and asking for an interview yields a 47 percent success rate. Following up in person or by telephone can boost your chances of success considerably. Cold calls followed by personal contact can lead to a success rate as high as 69 percent. If you put forth the time and energy, it’s very possible to land a job using these methods.

Targeted Mailing

A targeted mailing is done by contacting employers directly with a résumé and a personalized letter to inquire about employment possibilities. Since you don’t know if these organizations are actually hiring, you are really trying to tap into their hidden job market. In order to conduct a targeted mailing, you must first spend time identifying organizations that interest you. After you have determined these organizations, obtain the name and address of the manager who hires for the job or department of interest and send a personalized cover letter expressing your interest in employment. Request an appointment and indicate that you will follow up with this person by a certain date. Be reasonable about your time frame, since managers are busy and the mail can be very slow. Always follow up when you say you will.

Phone and E-mail Campaigns

Conducting a phone or e-mail campaign to inquire whether an organization is currently hiring can reduce the time you spend sending out unsolicited résumés and cover letters. Be careful, however, that the person you speak to on the phone or via e-mail really has the knowledge and authority to tell you if the company is hiring. If you are told that the organization is not hiring but you really have a strong interest in the organization, you may still wish to send a résumé or visit the organization personally. Contact as many organizations as possible to determine their vacancies, and follow up with a personalized letter and résumé if you are told that they are hiring.

Knocking on Doors

Believe it or not, it is possible to find a job by knocking on doors. Although sometimes impossible to do, it is incredibly effective to personally visit organizations where you would like to work (especially small businesses). It shows your commitment and interest to the organization, and it is a great way to uncover hidden job opportunities. Showing up in person at an organization you know to be hiring is also a good strategy. Try to talk directly to the person making hiring decisions. This is often fairly easy to arrange in smaller organizations. If you do not know who is responsible for hiring, do additional research or make a few more phone calls to determine with whom you should speak. Although it can be intimidating to walk into an organization and ask a stranger for a job, this is a technique that truly works.

Career Fairs

Career fairs are yet another way of meeting face-to-face with a potential employer. Career fairs bring employers who are currently hiring together with job seekers in one central location. Campus career fairs at the University of Illinois are generally open to all students and are an opportunity for you to speak with a wide array of employers within a short period of time. National career fairs are often run by professional organizations that act as a broker between you and the hiring company. At career fairs, you have the opportunity to give a recruiter your résumé and gather information about the company. You also have the chance to impress the recruiter in person, but usually only for one or two minutes, as you are competing against hundreds of other students to get “noticed.” If you do an impressive job of selling yourself, the career fair might lead to multiple interviews. A good strategy for graduate students might be to go to a career fair and distribute their résumés, but then to follow up directly with the organizations or recruiters with a phone call or personalized cover letter and résumé.

Winning Strategies--The “Best” Ways to Find Jobs

Networking

It’s not what you know, it’s WHO you know! Networking is the number one way of finding a job, and according to recent statistics, nearly 70 percent of jobs are obtained this way. When you couple that number with the fact that many other job search techniques involve some degree of networking, it emerges as perhaps the single most important thing you can do to find a job.

What is networking?

Have you heard of the Six Degrees of Separation Theory? It states that every person in the world is connected to each other through no more than five other people. This means that through your informal “network,” you should be able to connect to many people who are either in the career field or in the organization that you are interested in pursuing.
Networking is an honest effort to connect with as many people as possible who can assist you with your job search.

How to begin the networking process

The first step to networking is to build a list of your contacts. Your contacts should include almost everyone who you know: current and former classmates, current and former co-workers, members of organizations you are involved in, graduates from the same university and from other universities you have attended, friends, neighbors, relatives, and faculty members. After you build this network, begin to talk to the people whom you know well and ask them whom they know. You will gradually start to find people who can put you in contact with others who can aid you in your job search.

How can networking help

Many people will tell you that they landed their first job through a contact rather than a job posting. Networking can help you in two major ways.

1. Most job opportunities are never posted to the outside world. By telling everyone within your network that you are seeking a job, you are automatically opening yourself up to the “hidden” job market. Ask everyone in your network to let you know if they know of any job opportunities in your desired field, and have them spread the word to everyone within THEIR network. All of the sudden, you have potentially hundreds of people keeping their eyes and ears peeled for job opportunities for you!
2. Employers are much more likely to interview someone who is recommended to them by someone they trust than to hire someone about whom they know nothing. If you find an organization you are interested in working for, activate your network! Start asking everyone you know if they know a manager in the ABC Department of the XYZ Company. Even if none of your contacts know such a person, it is still probable that someone within their network knows such a person.

A Few More Notes About Networking

• Networking must always be reciprocated. If you want people to help you, you need to help those who are trying to make contact with you or your network.
• Networking requires careful record keeping. To be effective, you need to know the name and some basic information about the contact who led you to the organization you are pursuing.
• Always maintain your network extremely carefully. Send thank you notes if someone helped you, holiday cards to stay in touch, and regular notes to update them on your progress.

Informational Interviews

Informational interviews are not job interviews, but rather are opportunities for you to spend a short amount of time talking to people who are in your desired field or organization. You obviously will need to network in order to locate people in your field or organization of interest before you conduct an informational interview.

When you conduct an informational interview, you have the opportunity to ask questions, gather information, and make contact with people who are extremely knowledgeable about their field or organization. In general, people usually enjoy talking about what they do and giving advice, and they are usually the best sources of information about what their job and organization is really like. Conducting informational interviews not only
provides you with information about potential career opportunities, it also builds your network. If you conduct successful informational interviews and remain in touch with the people you talk with, they may also remember and refer you as they learn of new job opportunities. Conducting informational interviews is also a great way to practice your interviewing skills.

Finding a Mentor

A mentor is someone who has goals and interests that are similar to yours, but is a few steps further along in his or her career path than you. This person may give you advice and guidance for achieving your career goals, and your interactions may be frequent. Although identifying the appropriate person to potentially serve as your mentor may be difficult, having someone with more experience who can help guide your career is invaluable. While conducting informational interviews, try to identify a person who could serve as your mentor. A relationship with a mentor can be very informal, but is generally a closer relationship than one you would establish from a typical informational interview.

Getting in from the Inside

The majority of vacant positions are filled internally. In fact, most jobs are never even posted to the outside world, and many employers would not even consider hiring someone about whom they know nothing. Hiring someone from the inside can be done in many ways: by promoting a current full-time or part-time employee, by hiring former full-time or part-time workers, or by hiring interns, volunteers, contract workers, or temporary workers. Employers like this strategy because it is very low-risk: they already have an established relationship and know the quality of the work of the person they are hiring.

Getting some experience in the field or organization you want to work in is the only way to find a job from the inside. Also, gaining some experience before embarking on a full-time job search is essential, especially if you are a graduate student who has had very few work experiences outside academia. This gives you more credibility and demonstrates your commitment to the field. It is also a great way to transition into the nonacademic world and gain some experience for your résumé. Although most graduate students are extremely busy, there are many ways to gain experience that might be conducive to your schedule.

Internships

An internship is probably the best way to gain experience with an organization. An internship is a short-term work experience that may be paid or unpaid. Internships often occur during the summer, but can also be done part-time during the academic year. Internships provide the intern with the opportunity to “test-drive” a particular field and simultaneously gain valuable work experience. The process used to find an internship is similar to the process involved in finding a full-time job, so this is a good opportunity to practice those skills.

The structure of an internship is generally agreed upon by both the student and the employer; it is important to develop a plan for any internship to ensure that the experiences you are given match your goals. Some companies permit flexible hours, particularly for unpaid internships. Any experience you can gain is valuable, so take advantage of these opportunities, learn as much as you can, and make as many contacts as possible.

Job Shadowing

If you are unable to spare the time or locate an internship, shadowing someone in the workplace can be extremely valuable. Job shadowing is similar to an extended version of an informational interview, and can range in length from a couple of hours to several days. The advantage to shadowing is that you really get to see what a typical day is like for someone in a particular field or organization, and it will provide you with topics of discussion in a potential job interview.

Other Ways to Gain Experience

If you are unable to arrange an internship or job shadowing experience, be creative and try to find other ways to gain experience. Some suggestions include:

• Find a part-time job in a company or industry that interests you. For example, if you want to work in banking or finance, a part-time job as a bank teller would provide you with meaningful experience and help you develop contacts.
• Volunteer for an organization to gain some experience and exposure. Nonprofit and government agencies are usually anxious for extra help and often can’t afford to pay for it.
• Try doing some paid or unpaid consulting, projects, or even some administrative or secretarial work for an organization that interests you.

Useful Links

Useful Links

http://www.translationdirectory.com/
http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles.htm http://www.wata.cc/
http://www.atida.org/
http://accurapid.com/journal/
http://www.translatorscafe.com/
http://www.ihes.com/bcn/translation/links.html

Links for Translators
The resources on this page are all available free (or in free versions) on the Internet.

1. General Dictionaries

http://oxforddictionaries.com/
http://www.merriam-webster.com/
http://dictionary.reference.com/
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/
http://thesaurus.com/
http://www.yourdictionary.com/

2. Encyclopedias

http://www.britannica.com/
http://www.wikipedia.org/
http://www.refdesk.com/

3. Glossaries and specialist dictionaries

Nearly 750,000 Google results for "online glossary"
Well, you would try Google, wouldn't you?
Business Glossary (Andy Miles)
Computer terms (TechWeb)
Provides definitions of over 20,000 computer terms.
Desktop Publishing (About.com)
Graphic design, paper, printing, software, and typography terms. The usual good results from About.com.
Directory of glossaries (Glossarist.com)
Describes itself as a "searchable and categorised directory of glossaries and topical dictionaries". Excellent - and one to bookmark!
Economics (About.com)
Another useful glossary from About.com.
Film glossary (Internet Movie Database)
Excellent - as you would expect from the incomparable IMDb!
IT terms (Whatis.com)
Defines thousands of information technology terms.
Law (Law.com)
To translators, the dictionary is probably the most useful of Law.com's extensive resources.
Legal dictionary (Nolo.com)
Nolo.com has both a legal dictionary and also an encyclopaedia on legal topics.
More glossaries (elcastellano.com)
Vast A-Z of glossaries on different subjects.
Quotations (Bartleby.com)
Searchable database of quotations in English (also dictionary and encylopaedia).
Slang (Peevish.com)
Dictionary of UK slang. Try their links section for other forms of slang (Australian, US, specialist...).
Statistics
Webopedia.com
Online dictionary and search engine for computer and Internet technology. Results generally excellent, as are the links provided.

4. Jobs

– http://www.mihnati.com/
– http://www.arabo.com/.
– http://www.bayt.com/.


5. Organisations


ATIDA (Arabic Translation and Intercultural Dialog Association):
http://www.atida.org/

WATA (World Arabic Translators' Association):
http://www.arabicwata.org/

 Arab Organization for Translation:
http://www.aot.org.lb/Home/index.php

Saudi Association for Languages and Translations: 
http://www.saolt.net/

American Translators Association:
ATA (American Translators Association)
http://www.atanet.org/

6. Other tools

Acronyms (Acronymfinder.com)
http://www.acronymfinder.com/
Claims to be the world's largest acronym and abbreviations database. Try finding something not among its over 500,000 entries!
Google toolbar
A handy little application that puts Google on your browser toolbar.
Grammar and Writing Guide (Capital Community College)
Complete online guide to English grammar.

7. More links

An excellent, vast collection of links on a wide variety of subjects and languages from Traduït.net.Results for "Glossary" on About.comYou're stuck for a term? Can't find a glossary on a particular theme? Try About.com!
Translator's CompanionThe Translator's Companion offers a large number of different resources for translators, including an excellent selection of links, with glossaries in many different languages on a wide variety of topics, job offers...
Search Bug
Advertises itself as "the most useful searches" - all of them from one site. Try it - it might well become a favourite.
Software (Translation.net)
http://www.translation.net/
Commercial software of all kinds for translators. The site also has an extensive selection of links to other sites (dictionaries, jobs, mailing lists...)
Stuck? (Ask Jeeves)
It happens to everyone! You get completely stuck and just can't think how to translate something - and can't find the resources you are looknig for. As a last resort, try Ask Jeeves http://www.ask.com/
Style Guide (The Economist)
The Economist's thematically arranged style guide is particularly good on punctuation, and also has various good sections covering common errors
Style Guide (The Guardian)
Alphabetical listing of how we (or rather The Guardian) write foreign or other words in the news, use capital letters (etc), spell accommodation, and so on.
Web and text translator (Freetranslation.com)
Free - and very rough - translation of text and webpages into a variety of European languages.
Web translator (Wordreference.com)
Smart little application that translates any word on any webpage with just a couple of clicks (English, French, German, Italian, Spanish).
Who's Who (who2.com)
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Numerals and Determiners

http://www.docstoc.com/docs/17727192/Numerals-and-Determiners/

Numerals and Determiners
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/determin/xdetm3.htm

DETERMINERS

Nouns are often preceded by the words the, a, or an. These words are called DETERMINERS. They indicate the kind of reference which the noun has. The determiner the is known as the DEFINITE ARTICLE. It is used before both singular and plural nouns:

Singular              Plural
the taxi                the taxis
the paper             the papers
the apple             the apples

The determiner a (or an, when the following noun begins with a vowel) is the INDEFINITE ARTICLE. It is used when the noun is singular:

• a taxi
• a paper
• an apple

The articles the and a/an are the most common determiners, but there are many others:

• any tax
• that question
• those apples
• this paper
• some apple
• whatever taxi
• whichever taxi

Many determiners express quantity:

• all examples
• both parents
• many people
• each person
• every night
• several computers
• few excuses
• enough water
• no escape

Perhaps the most common way to express quantity is to use a numeral. We look at numerals as determiners in the next section.
________________________________________
Numerals and Determiners

Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals express quantity:

• one book
• two books
• twenty books

In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence:

• first impressions
• second chance
• third prize

The subclass of ordinals includes a set of words which are not directly related to numbers (as first is related to one, second is related to two, etc). These are called general ordinals, and they include last, latter, next, previous, and subsequent. These words also function as determiners:

• next week
• last orders
• previous engagement
• subsequent developments

When they do not come before a noun, as we've already seen, numerals are a subclass of nouns. And like nouns, they can take determiners:

• the two of us
• the first of many

They can even have numerals as determiners before them:

• five twos are ten

In this example, twos is a plural noun and it has the determiner five before it.

Pronouns and Determiners

There is considerable overlap between the determiner class and the subclass of pronouns. Many words can be both:

           Pronoun                                             Determiner

• This is a very boring book.                 This book is very boring.
• That's an excellent film.                       That film is excellent

As this table shows, determiners always come before a noun, but pronouns are more independent than this. They function in much the same way as nouns, and they can be replaced by nouns in the sentences above:

• This is a very boring book. ~Ivanhoe is a very boring book.
• That's an excellent film. ~Witness is an excellent film.

On the other hand, when these words are determiners, they cannot be replaced by nouns:

• This book is very boring. ~*Ivanhoe book is very boring.
• That film is excellent. ~*Witness film is excellent.

The personal pronouns (I, you, he, etc) cannot be determiners. This is also true of the possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, and theirs). However, these pronouns do have corresponding forms which are determiners:

Possessive Pronoun                              

• The white car is mine.                              
• Yours is the blue coat.                              
• The car in the garage is his/hers.                 
• David's house is big, but ours is bigger.       
• Theirs is the house on the left.                     

Determiner

• My car is white.
• Your coat is blue.
• His/her car is in the garage.
• Our house is bigger than David's.
• Their house is on the left.

The definite and the indefinite articles can never be pronouns. They are always determiners.

DETERMINERS

The Ordering of Determiners

Determiners occur before nouns, and they indicate the kind of reference which the nouns have. Depending on their relative position before a noun, we distinguish three classes of determiners.

EXAMPLE:

I met                              

Predeterminerall
Central Determiner
my
Postdeterminer
many
Noun
friends.

A sentence like this is somewhat unusual, because it is rare for all three determiner slots to be filled in the same sentence. Generally, only one or two slots are filled.
Predeterminers
Predeterminers specify quantity in the noun which follows them, and they are of three major types:

1. "Multiplying" expressions, including expressions ending in times:

• twice my salary
• double my salary
• ten times my salary

2. Fractions

• half my salary
• one-third my salary

3. The words all and both:

• all my salary
• both my salaries

Predeterminers do not normally co-occur:
*all half my salary
Central Determiners

The definite article the and the indefinite article a/an are the most common central determiners:

• all the book
• half a chapter

As many of our previous examples show, the word my can also occupy the central determiner slot. This is equally true of the other possessives:

• all your money
• all his/her money
• all our money
• all their money

The demonstratives, too, are central determiners:

• all these problems
• twice that size
• four times this amount

Postdeterminers
Cardinal and ordinal numerals occupy the postdeterminer slot:

• the two children
• his fourth birthday

This applies also to general ordinals:

• my next project
• our last meeting
• your previous remark
• her subsequent letter

Other quantifying expressions are also postdeterminers:

• my many friends
• our several achievements
• the few friends that I have

Unlike predeterminers, postdeterminers can co-occur:

• my next two projects
• several other people

Some Notes on Quantifiers
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/determiners/determiners.htm

Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. For our purposes, we will choose the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:

The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:

• many trees
• a few trees
• few trees
• several trees
• a couple of trees
• none of the trees

The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:

• not much dancing
• a little dancing
• little dancing
• a bit of dancing
• a good deal of dancing
• a great deal of dancing
• no dancing

The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:

• all of the trees/dancing
• some trees/dancing
• most of the trees/dancing
• enough trees/dancing
• a lot of trees/dancing
• lots of trees/dancing
• plenty of trees/dancing
• a lack of trees/dancing

In formal academic writing,
Determiner Usage
http://www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/determiners.htm

*If part of a noun phrase then use “the German language”, etc.

Syntactic Analysis

Based on: http://webdeptos.uma.es/filifa/personal/amoreno/teaching/ling/syntax.htm


1. Levels of Analysis


1.1 Linguistic units. Constituents

Syntax has traditionally taken the sentence as the starting point. Smaller units are regarded as building blocks of sentence structure.

The parts into which a sentence can b e segmented are called the constituents of the sentence. The term immediate constituents (ICs) refers to those constituents which together form a higher-order constituent, for example in

'John took a walk'
"a" and "walk" are the ICs of "a walk" and "took" and "a walk" are the ICs of "took a walk"...
The whole sentence is not considered a constituent of anything, since the sentence is largest unit of syntactic description.


1.2 Phrases, words and morphemes

Constituents can also be considered not as building blocks of sentence structure but as independent linguistic objects with their own characteristics and internal structure. From this point of view, they are called phrases. Just like constituents, phrases may consist of single words ('John') or several ('a walk').

Phrases can be lengthened by adding more words: in doing so, the phrase's internal structure is modified, but not the overall sentence structure: "a long walk".

We can distinguish several types of phrases according to the class to which the head (the most dominant constituent) of the phrase belongs. We distinguish at least the following:

• noun phrase: 'a walk', 'a walk in the sun'
• verb phrase: 'took a walk', 'could have been fun'
• adjective phrase: 'fairly interesting', 'too good to marry'
• adverb phrase: 'admittedly', 'very well'
• prepositional phrase: 'in the morning sun', 'in Spain'

Phrases are made up of words, and a minimal phrase consists of one single word. In the same way as before, we can look upon words as constituents of a phrase, but also as independent linguistic objects.

1.3 Rankscale and rankshift

We have already set up a hierarchy of units of linguistic description: morphemes function as constituents of words, words as constituents of phrases, phrases of sentences. This hierarchy has been called the rankscale:

• TEXT
• Sentence
• Clause
• Phrase
• Word
• Morpheme
• Sounds

However, units are not always composed of units of the next lowest rank. Quite frequently, a unit of a given rank functions as a constituent of a unit of the same rank or even a unit which is one step lower down the rankscal e. This phenomenon is called rankshift. Thus,

• clauses can function as constituents of other clauses:

         'I know she isn't here'

• clauses can function as constituents of phrases

         '...pleased you could come'

• phrases can function as constituents of other phrases

            '... at the corner of the street'

• words in the structure of other words:

            'treetop; goldsmith; blackbird'
1.4 Functions and categories

So we have seen that every linguistic unit (except the sentence, ...) can be considered as an element that plays a role within a larger structure, or as something with its own characteristics and internal structure. From the first point of view, we are concerned with its function. From the second, we are concerned with its category or class.

Ex. 'John took a walk'

The units "John" and "walk", individually considered are nouns, and therefore belong to the same category or class. But we can also look at "John" and "a walk" as constituents of a larger structure (the sentence) and then their functions are different: "John" is the subject and "a walk" is the direct object.

So there is not a one-to-one correspondence between functions and categories.
Ex.: the same noun phrase can realize 4 different functions:

1. He leaves next week. (adverbial)
2. Next week is the time to do it. (subject)
3. Let's call next week 'period A' .( direct object)
4. Suppose we give next week priority .(indirect object)

Ex: The same function can be realized by different categories:

• 'He understood the problem' (noun phrase)
• 'He understood what I was talking about' (clause )

Thus, we distinguish two types of syntactic analysis that can be performed on any given sentences:

1. Functional or relational analysis
2. Phrase structure or categorial analysis

2. Functions

Direct Object (DO): a single complement immediately following a verb if it can become the subject in a passive sentence. E.g.:

• 'She read the grammar book''
• Our neighbours are looking after the children'

If the verb is followed by two complements both of which can become the subject of a passive sentence, then the first complement is the indirect object and the second the DO.

Indirect Object (IO): associated with the first two complements hat can be the subject of the passive sentence. The first is the IO. E.g.:

• 'She gave me the money'
• 'He teaches us grammar'

The IO can be substituted by a prepositional phrase with to- following the DO. E.g.:

• 'The firm offered him the job'
• 'She showed me her room'
• 'They gave me the money'

This is not possible with some verbs, however:

• 'They fined me $20'
• 'You can spare yourself the trouble'
• 'The shop charged me 10$ for this'

Benefactive Subject (BO): It resembles the IO (same position in the sentence). It can also be replaced by a prepositional phrase, but usually with the preposition for not to.

• 'Her father bought her a car'
• 'Fetch me the paper, will you?'
• 'He made himself a cup of tea.'
• 'She played me a few songs.'
• 'He wrote me a letter.'

A nother difference with the IO is that the BO cannot become the subject of a passive sentence:
* I was written a letter

Subject Complement (SC): it complements the verb, but is related to the subject of the sentence, i.e., sth. that is said about the subject. E.g.:

• 'She is a happy girl'
• 'She became a good friend of mine'
• 'He got very depressed'
• 'He died a poor man'
• 'I feel relaxed'

Object complement (OC): it p redicates something about the DO, which it follows. E.g.:

• 'She called me a psycho'
• 'I consider it unnecessary'
• 'I find it inappropriate'

The OC becomes the SC in passive sentences

Predicator Complement (PC): strictly speaking, all of the above are PCs (as they all complement the verb). This category is a miscellaneous type of complement that does not fit well in any of the types above. the simplest case is a DO that cannot become the sub ject of the passive sentence. E.g.

• 
  
  'This car costs £16,000'
• 
  
  'He resembles his father'
• 
  
  'It took me two hours to prepare dinner'

3. Categories

Phrases consist minimally of a Head. This means that in a one-word phrase like [children], the Head is children. In longer phrases, a string of elements may appear before the Head:

• [the small children]

For now, we will refer to this string simply as the pre-Head string.

A string of elements may also appear after the Head, and we will call this the post-Head string:

pre-Head string   Head         post-Head string

[the small   children   in class 5]

So we have a basic three-part structure: pre-Head string,Head,post-Head string
3.1 The Noun Phrase (NP)

As we've seen, a noun phrase has a noun as its Head. Determiners and adjective phrases usually constitute the pre-Head string:

• [NP the children]
• [NP happy children]
• [NP the happy children]

In theory at least, the post-Head string in an NP can be indefinitely long:

[NP the dog that chased the cat that killed the mouse that ate the cheese that was made from the milk that came from the cow that...]

Fortunately, they are rarely as long as this in real use.

The Head of an NP does not have to be a common or a proper noun, pronouns, too, can function as the Head of an NP:

• [NP I] like coffee
• The waitress gave [NP me] the wrong dessert
• [NP This] is my car

If the Head is a pronoun, the NP will generally consist of the Head only. This is because pronouns do not take determiners or adjectives, so there will be no pre-Head string. However, with some pronouns, there may be a post-Head string:

[NP Those who arrive late] cannot be admitted until the interval
Similarly, numerals, as a subclass of nouns, can be the Head of an NP:

• [NP Two of my guests] have arrived
• [NP The first to arrive] was John

The general structure of the noun phrase is the following:

• (predeterminer)
•  (determiner)
• (postdeterminer)
•  (premodifier)
•  HEAD
•  (postmodifier)

Ex.: All the many very beautiful girls with hats at the party .

Predeterminers: all, double, half, twice, both, many, such, what

Determiners: articles, demonstrative and possessive pronouns.

Postdeterminers: numbers, many, other, last, few, more, own, etc.

Premodifiers:

• an adjective phrase: 'very beautiful girls'
• a noun phrase: 'traffic jam', 'speed limit'
• a classifying genitive: 'a dog's life', 'a men's shop'

Postmodifiers:

• a prepositional phrase: 'the city of Rome', 'the edge of the desk', 'the day before yesterday', 'the house opposite yours'
• a relative clause: 'the book that I told you about'
• a non-finite clause: 'the man to talk to', 'the energy to write such a book', 'the men digging a hole', the children injured in the accident'

Discontinuous modifier:

• adj + N + PP: 'a similar wallpaper to yours'
• adj + N + infinitive clause: 'a difficult theory to explain'
• comp. adj. + N + than + comp. clause: 'a faster car than your Jaguar'
• as + adj + N + as + comp. clause: 'as rich a man as my father'
• so + adj + N + that- clause or as to- clause: 'so dark a cave that we could not see a thing', 'so intense a light as to blind the eyes'
• too + adj + N + inf. clause: 'too heavy a chest to move'

3.2 The Adjective Phrase (AP)

In an ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AP), the Head word is an adjective. Here are some examples:

• Susan is [AP clever]
• The doctor is [AP very late]
• My sister is [AP fond of animals]

The pre-Head string in an AP is most commonly an adverb phrase such as very or extremely. Adjective Heads may be followed by a post-Head string:

• [AP happy to meet you]
• [AP ready to go]
• [AP afraid of the dark]

A small number of adjective Heads must be followed by a post-Head string. The adjective Head fond is one of these. Compare:

1. My sister is [AP fond of animals]
2. *My sister is [fond]

The general structure of the adjective phrase is the following:

• (premodifier)
•  HEAD
•  (postmodifier)

Premodifier:

• Adverb phrases: very useful, extremely difficult, far more interesting

Postmodifier:

• the adverb enough: 'good enough'
• a prepositional phrase: 'afraid of mice', 'full of water', 'good at football', 'qualified for the job'
• that- clause: 'worried that he might fall', 'c ertain that he is married'
• comparative adjectives (-er): 'longer than we had expected'
• non-finite clause: 'afraid to go', 'anxious to leave', 'eager to please', 'dubious what to do next', 'uncertain what to tell her', 'eager for the party to start', 'sorry for her to leave'

Discontinuous modifier:

• so + adj + that-clause or as-clause: 'so hot that I could not sleep'
• as + adj + as + comp. clause or NP: 'as pretty as her sister', 'as cruel as h e is intelligent'
• more/less + adj + than + than + comp. clause or NP: 'more balanced than his father', 'his proposal is more attractive than the one he made last week'
• too + adj + infinitive clause: 'too good to be true', 'too hot for the children to play in the garden'

3.3 Adverb Phrase (AdvP)


In an ADVERB PHRASE, the Head word is an adverb. Most commonly, the pre-Head string is another adverb phrase:

• 'He graduated [AdvP very recently]'
• 'She left [AdvP quite suddenly]

In AdvPs, there is usually no post-Head string, but here's a rare example:

• '[AdvP Unfortunately for him], his wife came home early'

The general structure of the adverb phrase is the following:

• (premodifier)
• HEAD
•  (postmodifier)

Premodifier:

• a (intensifying) adverb phrase: ver y seldom, extremely stupidly, quite soon, fairly often, much more carefully.

Postmodifier:

• the adverb enough: well enough, bravely enough to deserve a medal
• a finite clause: They work harder than we expected

Discontinuous modifier:

• so + ADV + that- clause or as to clause:

'They worked so hard that they finished before five' 'He spoke so eloquently as to convince everyine'

• as + ADV + as + comp. clause or NP:

'He loves her as much as he did 25 years ago'
'My dog runs as fast as yours'

• more/less + ADV + than + comp clause or NP:

'The boy participates more actively than we had expected'
'He reacted less kindly than yesterday'

• too + ADV + inf. clause:

'We are travelling too slowly to get there by noon'
3.4 The Verb Phrase (VP)


The verb phrase consists of verbal forms only, except in the case of multi-word verbs.
The maximum number of verbal form is five.
The principal part of the VP is the lexical (or main) verb. The lexical verb can occur on its own, but it may co-occur with auxiliary verbs in several patterns.

• writes,
• may write
• may have written
• may have been writing
• may have been being written

3.5 The Prepositional Phrase (PP)
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES usually consist of a preposition and a prepositional complement (the post-head string). Here are some examples:

• [PP through the window]
• [ PP over the bar]
• [PP across the line]
• [PP after midnight]

This makes PPs easy to recognise: they nearly always begin with a preposition. A pre-Head string is rarely present, but here are some examples:

• [PP straight through the window]
• [PP right over the bar]
• [PP just after midnight]

3.6 Phrases within Phrases
Consider the NP:
 [NP small children]
It consists of a Head 'children' and a pre-Head string 'small'.
Now 'small' is an adjective, so it is the Head of its own adjective phrase.
 We know this because it could be expanded to form a longer string:
'very small children'
Here, the adjective Head 'small' has its own pre-Head string 'very':
[AP very small]
 So in 'small children', we have an AP 'small' embedded with the NP 'small children'. We represent this as follows:
[NP [AP small] children]
All but the simplest phrases will contain smaller phrases within them. Here's another example:
[PP across the road]
Here, the Head is 'across', and the post-Head string is 'the road'. Now we know that 'the road' is itself an NP -- its Head is 'road', and it has a pre-Head string 'the'. So we have an NP within the PP:
[PP across [NP the road]]
4. Subordination and Coordination

When a given function (S, DO, IO, etc) has as its categorial counterpart not a phrase, but a clause, the resulting sentence is said to be complex, because more than one VP is present. Subordination is a non-symmetrical or hierarchical relation (as a opposed to coordination), holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent part of the other. This hierarchical relation can be graphically shown by means of a tree structure:

The container clause is called the main clause or superordinate clause. This may correspond with the sentence (main/superordinate clause), but it can also be another subordinate clause (subordinate/superordinate clause). This phenomenon is called embedding or nesting. Example:

The subordinate clause must have a function in the sentence or clause structure. Clauses can also be part of phrases (rankshift). In this case it is a simple sentence even though there is more than one verb phrase in the sentence. Subordinate clauses can also be realized by non-finite and verbless clauses.